Beef It's What's for Dinner Angus Simmental Mix
SENSORY AND MEAT QUALITY, OPTIMIZATION OF
M. Dikeman , C.E. Devine , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences, 2004
Genetics
Genetic properties of animals are important for obtaining the right characteristics for diverse product situations. Angus, Reddish Angus, Shorthorn and Due south Devon cattle, and Duroc and Berkshire swine breeds, are best for high marbling. Animals with a Bos indicus content (≥1/2) accept a tendency for less tender meat in some musculus. Hindsaddle muscles of callipyge sheep are less tender than those of normal sheep. Hampshire swine have tender meat only a lower water-belongings capacity. Charolais or Simmental × Angus or Carmine Angus crosses optimize composition and meat quality in some situations. Heritability of tenderness in cattle is approximately 0.30, and of marbling approximately 0.5. Expected progeny differences for tenderness have been published by some brood associations in the U.s.a..
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SENSORY AND MEAT QUALITY, OPTIMIZATION OF
Yard. Dikeman , C.E. Devine , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences (Second Edition), 2014
Genetics
Genetic backdrop of animals are of import for obtaining the correct characteristics for various production situations. Angus, Red Angus, Shorthorn and Southward Devon cattle, and Duroc and Berkshire swine breeds are best for loftier marbling. Animals with a Bos indicus content (=50%) take generally less tender meat in most major muscles. Still, with adept electrical stimulation, these differences are less meaning. Hindsaddle muscles of callipyge sheep are much less tender than those of normal sheep. Hampshire swine have tender meat but a lower h2o-holding capacity considering of the Napole gene. Charolais or Simmental × Angus or Red Angus crosses of cattle optimize limerick and meat quality. Heritability of tenderness and of marbling in cattle is approximately 0.40 and 0.fifty, respectively. Expected progeny differences for tenderness (measured by Warner–Bratzler shear force) have been published past some breed associations in the US. In that location are now commercially available genetic markers for beef and swine for quality traits. Within the beefiness industry, genetic markers for marbling and tenderness tin be used. For swine, genetic markers for the Napole gene, the Halothane gene, and marbling are available.
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Growth curves and growth patterns
Steven G. Lonergan , ... Dennis N. Marple , in The Science of Animal Growth and Meat Technology (Second Edition), 2019
An Instance of Grid Marketing
This Filigree Marketing example is a cooperative program between the JBS Swift Packing Company, the Simmental Association, and the Red Angus Clan of America. It is often referred to as the 70 × 70 Grid as it promotes the marketing of cattle from the feedlot when lxx% of the cattle grade USDA Option and 70% of the cattle have a Yield course of ane or 2. A Grid used in this blazon of plan is shown in Fig. 6.44.
Fig. vi.44. An instance of a lxx × seventy Marketing Grid for feedlot cattle.
Courtesy, Dr. Cistron Rouse.The management of the JBS Swift Visitor makes this Filigree Marketing Plan available to cattle feeders that purchase feeder calves that are age and source verified. The Simmental and Red Angus Associations work with the commercial cow-dogie producers that sell their cattle to the cooperating feedlots. Representatives of the Simmental and Red Angus Associations verify the age and source of the cattle. The Association representatives place tags in the ears of the feeder calves when they are all the same part of the commercial cow-dogie herd. To receive an ear tag from the Brood Associations, the feeder calves had to exist sired by a Simmental or Cerise Angus Bull that has good potential for marbling deposition and a low amount of waste matter fat in their offspring. The ear tags stay with the feeder calves until they are harvested past the packing company.
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Reproductive and Maternal Behavior of Livestock
Peter J. Chenoweth , ... Cornelia Flöercke , in Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals (Second Edition), 2014
Cattle Maternal Behavior
Cows in complimentary-ranging herds are reported to leave the herd for calving, although this is understandably less common in more intensive pasture systems. Red Angus cattle appear to evidence a considerable degree of behavioral plasticity in calving beliefs and calf defense force patterns when approached by a strange object (eastward.g., a vehicle that differed from the familiar trucks on the ranch) ( Floercke et al., 2012). In post-parturient cows, individual differences in protection-, aggression-, and vocalization-behaviors towards the newborn calf exist when cows are approached by a vehicle. In the former written report, 99% of cows were protective, xiii% showed signs of aggression by lowering the caput or pawing the ground and 78% vocalized towards the calf. The expression of these behaviors reflects private differences in temperament and cows too differed in the level of "vigilance" towards the surroundings. Important criteria for choice of a birthing site include dry, soft bedding with provision of comprehend. Further influencing factors are the availability of diet, type of terrain, threat of predation, and the need for bonding with the calf.
The time of solar day at which about births occur varies in different reports. Edwards (1979) found no bias towards day or night calving whereas Keyserlingk and Weary (2007) reported increased calving in the belatedly afternoon and evening; nevertheless both findings may simply reflect routine management practices. Females bond with their newborn very early in the postpartum catamenia and this sensitive catamenia betwixt mother and young is triggered by amniotic fluids (Gonyou and Stookey, 1987; Lévy and Keller, 2009) and hormonal changes in the encephalon of the dam (Nowak et al., 2000). Cattle take been described equally a "hider" species as there is a preference for secretion of the young. This fourth dimension of separation from the herd varies from a few hours to up to several days subsequently nascence. During this fourth dimension the mother grazes within hearing distance and returns regularly to the calf (Langbein and Raasch, 2000). Older calves may be left under the watchful eye of a "nanny" moo-cow nether extensive atmospheric condition, with this behavior beingness particularly observed in Bos indicus breeds.
Large individual differences have been observed to occur in calving beliefs during the perinatal period (Kunowska-Slósarz and Różańska, 2009). However, breed differences were likewise reported in a report by Le Neindre (1989) in which maternal behavior exhibited by a beef breed (Salers) was more intense than that shown by a dairy breed (Friesian). It has likewise been observed that beef females tend to go out the herd at calving more readily than dairy females (Lidfors et al., 1994). Dairy cattle accept been selected for less intense maternal behavior than beef breeds, in which stiff maternal behavior is valued (Le Neindre, 1989).
Recently, extensive beef systems in North America take been facing the challenge of increased predation loss by wolves (Bangs and Fritts, 1996; Clark and Johnson, 2009), black vultures, and golden eagles (Avery and Cummings, 2004). Selection since the belatedly 1990s towards calmer temperament cattle (Hyde, 2010) may have reduced maternal protectiveness. Ranchers take reported mothering problems and maternal neglect in very at-home females resulting in weak calves and calf starvation (Sime and Bangs, 2010). Females of Bos indicus breeds are generally regarded every bit existence strongly protective mothers, an ascertainment supported by Williams et al. (1991), who reported a direct positive additive genetic influence for weaning rate of calves in Brahmans. In Red Angus cows, private differences in protectiveness towards the dogie have been found (Floercke et al., 2012). The hair whorl pattern located high on the forehead may be used as an indicator for selection towards more reactive cattle (Grandin et al., 1995). Selection for superior maternal power in regions with loftier predation pressure could have advantages for ranchers. Temperament score at calving, a supposed indicator of maternal ability, was shown to differ amongst beef breeds in New Zealand. Heritabilities for behavioral traits were mostly low (Morris et al., 1994). However, a German written report showed that Angus cows were more than protective than Simmentals (Hoppe et al., 2008) although maternal protective behavior was not associated with weight gain of the offspring. From a production standpoint, strong maternal protective behavior may accept less importance in highly intensive systems with few predators, such as Germany, than in more extensive areas in which predation is common. Terminal, an important contributor to calf losses in Bos indicus (e.g., Guzerat) cattle is the development of oversized or "boule" teats in dams which hinder suckling (Frisch, 1982; Holroyd, 1987; Schmidek et al., 2008).
Some other of import cause of Bos indicus calf losses is the neonatal weakness syndrome (also known every bit "weak calf" and "dummy calf" syndrome) which is associated with high morbidity and bloodshed in young Bos indicus calves (DeRouen et al., 1967; Franke et al., 1975; Landaeta-Hernández et al., 2004c; Radostits et al., 1994). Affected calves show clinical signs which include poor cerebral and sensory responses, poor or absent suckling ability, difficulty in standing and movement and marked intolerance to cold weather (see review by Landaeta-Hernández et al., 2002b). Although similar symptoms occur in Bos taurus calves, the relatively high occurrence of this syndrome in Bos indicus cattle in general, as well as its clan with certain sires and breed types, suggests a genetic clan (Landaeta-Hernández et al., 2004b; Rowan, 1992). More recently, a congenital myasthenic syndrome caused by homozigosity for xx base pair deletion in the CHRNE gene (CHRNE 470del20) was identified in Brahman cattle in South Africa. The CHRNE 470del20 leads to a non-functional acetylcholine receptor causing progressive muscle weakness and bloodshed in immature calves (Thompson et al., 2003, 2007). Rapid progress in defining cattle genetic traits can be expected in association with the complete sequencing of the bovine genome (Elsick et al., 2009) which should ultimately let genetic modification and enhanced pick for desired traits, such as improved maternal ability, while ensuring other favorable traits are not compromised.
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Genetics and Beliefs During Treatment, Restraint, and Herding
Temple Grandin , Mark J. Deesing , in Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals (Second Edition), 2014
Hair Whorl Meridian and Vigilance
Animals with pilus whorls located high on the forehead may have high nervous system reactivity, increased fearfulness and emotionality, highly acute senses, stronger orienting responses, and vigilance. A low hair roll may be related to reduced vigilance and a reduced reactivity and fearfulness. Florcke et al. (2012) observed that Cherry-red Angus beef cows with high pilus whorls were more vigilant when their newborn calf was threatened past an approaching vehicle. Cows looked up and oriented towards the vehicle when at a greater altitude compared to cows with lower pilus whorls. In Brazil, cattle with high hair whorls above the eye exited more apace from a restraining chute Bueno Ribeiro et al. (2012), and struggled more in a calibration. Brazilian cattle have had much less intensive selection for temperament.
In cattle and horses, fine-boned, slender-bodied animals have a highly reactive temperament, a high pilus curlicue, and are more than likely to accept an explosive reaction when suddenly confronted with a novel stimulus that moves suddenly. Heavy-boned, muscular animals are more than likely to take a calm temperament and a low pilus gyre. Holstein dairy cows lack heavy muscling but fit the above criteria because they are heavy boned. We began to speculate about two separate genetic mechanisms influencing temperament afterwards the kickoff writer visited the Lasater Beefmaster herd in 1996. Lasater's cattle been closed to new genetics for 60 years, and subjected to a unique prepare of option pressures. Lasater (1972) selected his cattle using the natural principle of survival of the fittest. Heifers unable to give nascence unassisted or to protect their dogie from coyotes were culled. However, Lasater wanted commercially useful cattle so he also selected for temperament and carcass traits. The Beefmaster's breed is half Brahman, quarter Hereford, and quarter Shorthorn. Heifer'due south calves were selected every bit herd replacements if they willingly ate a food treat off a stick held by a seated person. Tom Lasater'southward son Dale explained how they selected for temperament. Instead of using sudden aversive novelty (such as restraint) as a temperament test, they assessed temperament of hungry, newly weaned calves by sitting in the pen with them. Calves that failed to eat from a person'south hand after two days were culled. When the herd was first started, nearly a quarter of the calves were culled. Today but 1% are culled for temperament (Dale Lasater, personal communication, 1996).
Lasater's selection criteria resulted in cows that are very protective of their calves, but extremely tame and seek contact with people. It is unusual to find range cows that will come up and lick people and will stand even so while beingness scratched and petted. It is likely they are selected for depression FEAR, high CARE (maternal nurturing), and PANIC (separation distress). The advent of these cherry-red brownish animals is striking. They are muscular and heavy boned with either high hair whorls on the forehead or no hair whorls.
Faure and Mills (Affiliate eight) demonstrated that the traits of fearfulness and social reinstatement are genetically separate. Social reinstatement and PANIC (separation distress) are probably the same emotional arrangement. In Japanese quail, social reinstatement is defined equally the trend of an isolated bird to rejoin flockmates. In a wild population it is likely that both fearfulness and high social reinstatement would announced naturally in the same brute because this would improve survival. In domestic cattle, fearful animals bunch together tightly when excited. Tight bunching is probably motivated by loftier fear. Social reinstatement makes animals bond and is probably not motivated past fear. Faure and Mills showed that social reinstatement is separate from fear because they were able to select and breed both low-fear and high-social reinstatement birds and vice versa.
A second grouping of cattle like to the Lasater Beefmasters's were observed past the first author during a trip to England in 2012. The cattle were Limousin×Devon cross cows that were very docile. They allowed strange people to approach them out on pasture, even though they had young calves. The cows were attentive to their calves and vocalized to call them as before long equally they saw a strange tractor towing a trailer full of people entering the pasture. Most of the pilus whorls on the cows were slightly above the eyes and no animals with extremely low whorls were observed. The cows were heavy boned even so extremely curious and quickly approached and touched the novel tractor. Fifty-fifty though heavy boned, their nervous system was vigilant. When I jumped off the trailer, virtually of the cows flinched but did not run abroad. The authors speculate that the combination of Devon genetics and Limousin had reduced Fearfulness, and produced animals that were high SEEKING, high PANIC (separation distress), and high CARE (maternal nurturing). Devons are bred to be docile and some farmers report they may push other cattle away from resources such equally feed troughs. Peradventure Limoisin genetics helped to maintain the vigilance trait.
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Advances in Genetics
Wenfang (Spring) Tan , ... Perry B. Hackett , in Advances in Genetics, 2012
three.1 Rapid Allele Introgression for Improvement of Nutrient Animals
There are numerous livestock breeds that have been extensively selected for a specialized set of traits, i.e. milk yield and composition, meat yield and limerick, growth charge per unit, thermotolerance, disease and parasite resistance, etc. Oft, alleles that would benefit a particular breed are present within the species only exist only in undeveloped breeds or breeds that have historically been selected for traits that differ to those that are of priority in the target breed (e.g. meat vs. milk production). TALEN-based gene conversion may provide an opportunity for transferring beneficial alleles betwixt animals/breeds without disrupting the improved genetic architectures achieved past long-term selection inside these breeds. However, traits for which only a few loci account for a large proportion of the observed genetic variance are conspicuously more bonny targets for this engineering (Casas et al., 1999; Grisart et al., 2002) than traits for which a big number of loci contribute just minor magnitudes of effect (Cole et al., 2009; Kemper, Visscher, & Goddard, 2012), such equally those that announced to predominate for complex traits.
The example presented in Figure 7 is of detail interest. Holstein cattles accept been extensively selected for high milk yield and milk quality. Unfortunately, the great majority of both male person and female Holsteins develop horns. To protect the welfare of both dairy subcontract operators and the cattle themselves, horns are routinely manually removed from the bulk of Holstein cattle. Mechanical de-horning is painful, elicits a temporary tiptop in animal stress, and adds expense to brute product (Graf & Senn, 1999 ), and despite the intent of protecting animals from subsequent injury, the practice is viewed by some as inhumane. In contrast, several breeds (e.chiliad., Red Angus, specialized for high quality/yield meat) are naturally horn costless, a trait referred to as polled ( Fig. 7). The polled trait follows a dominant inheritance pattern (Long & Gregory, 1978) and multiple groups are making progress on identifying the causative mutation (Seichter et al., 2012; J. Taylor, personal communication).
Effigy 7. Rapid allele introgression in livestock.
A) The diagram contrasts introgression of desired alleles (polled allele to horned animals) by crossbreeding (panel B) versus TALEN-mediated gene conversion (console C). Beef and dairy breeds are selected for divergent classes of traits resulting in genetic merit selected for product of meat or milk, respectively. The accumulation of these traits is referred to equally the genetic merit of each animal. Crossbreeding mixes these traits, which would result in animals that would not be platonic for either milk or meat production. The trait-selected genome architecture of these animals is conflicted by meiotic contagion, which would crave nigh eight generations of selection to recover the original genetic merit. Console C shows how TALEN-mediated gene conversion is able to transfer simply a desired trait from beef cattle into dairy breeds. In this example, TALENs generate a double-strand DNA interruption at the horned-polled locus that can be repaired past a homologous template carrying the polled allele from a polled beefiness breed, e.g., Carmine Angus. The resulting animal will exist both free of horns and maintain the original genetic architecture and merit for milk production. For color version of this figure, the reader is referred to the online version of this book.
Introgression of the polled allele into horned breeds could easily be accomplished by crossbreeding (Fig. 7B); nonetheless, the total genetic merit for milk product in the crossbred animals would dramatically endure. Furthermore, meiotic recombination would mix alleles influencing beef and milk product traits in each crossbred animal that would require numerous generations of backcrossing and intensive genome-wide, marker-assisted selection to recover the original level of quality milk production. During the same period, continued selection for milk production alone within the purebred Holstein population would have created genetic comeback that could never be recovered in the graded-up polled Holstein population. Thus, the inability to transfer a singled-out allele from one breed to another translates to meaning temporal and economical losses due to the long generation intervals in livestock. However, our results demonstrate that TALEN-mediated homologous recombination can be used to direct efficient allelic introgression in livestock without contamination of untargeted sequences and/or introduction of undesirable traits (authors, unpublished). In the specific case of the polled trait, in one case the responsible locus is identified, TALEN-mediated homologous recombination could in theory exist used to introduce just the polled allele without meiotic contagion (or allelic diffusion) (Fig. 7C). The resulting animals would both lack horns and retain their high genetic merit for milk product.
There are numerous boosted examples where TALEN-mediated allelic introgression could benefit animal agriculture. As previously mentioned for humans, each genome harbors 200–300 lacking/cleaved genes in both heterozygous (the majority) and homozygous states. The fact that putative LOF alleles are observed in homozygous states indicates that many of these loci are non lethals, possibly due to functional redundancy with other genes. However, within each individual nigh 7 of these loci are early developmental lethal and many of the others are likely to have deleterious effects on creature productivity and these loci are excellent targets for repair using TALEN-mediated allelic correction. Oftentimes, while desired alleles are being accumulated through selection, closely linked lacking alleles are perpetuated and fifty-fifty enriched inside a population. Causative mutations for at least 62 disease loci have now been determined in cattle and are cataloged at OMIA (http://omia.angis.org.au/home/) (Tabular array 6). Recently, several haplotypes were discovered that affect the fertility in mutual dairy breeds of cattle including Holstein, Brown Swiss, and Jersey (VanRaden, Olson, Null, & Hutchison, 2011). These haplotypes were identified due to their lack of occurrence in the homozygous state, despite their pregnant frequency in the population (four.5–25% carriers), which suggests that the homozygous haplotype results in lethality. Given the frequency of predicted LOF alleles from sequence surveys, more examples like this volition sally.
Table 6. Identified mutations causing affliction in cattle
| OMIA entry | Phenotype | Cistron | Mutation type | Deviation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| OMIA 000001 - 9913 | Ballgame | APAF1 | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 001565 - 9913 | Abortion and stillbirth | MIMT1 | ~110 kB deletion | |
| OMIA 000593 - 9913 | Acrodermatitis enteropathica | SLC39A4 | SNP | Splice site |
| OMIA 000543 - 9913 | Anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia | EDA | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 001541 - 9913 | Arachnomelia BTA23 | MOCS1 | 2 nt deletion | Frameshift |
| OMIA 000059 - 9913 | Arachnomelia BTA5 | SUOX | 1 nt INS | Frameshift |
| OMIA 001465 - 9913 | Arthrogryposis multiplex congenita | ISG15 | ~233 kB deletion | |
| OMIA 001106 - 9913 | Axonopathy | MFN2 | SNP | Splice site |
| OMIA 001437 - 9913 | Beta-lactoglobulin abnormal low expression | PAEP | SNP | Enhancer |
| OMIA 000151 - 9913 | Brachyspina | FANCI | 3.3 kB Deletion | |
| OMIA 000161 - 9913 | Cardiomyopathy and woolly haircoat syndrome | PPP1R13L | 7 bp duplication | Frameshift |
| OMIA 000162 - 9913 | Cardiomyopathy dilated | OPA3 | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 000185 - 9913 | Chediak–Higashi syndrome | LYST | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 000187 - 9913 | Chondrodysplasia | EVC2 | SNP and 1 bp deletion | Splice site and frameshift |
| OMIA 000194 - 9913 | Citrullinaemia | ASS1 | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 001340 - 9913 | Circuitous vertebral malformation | SLC35A3 | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 001450 - 9913 | Congenital muscular dystonia 1 | ATP2A1 | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 001451 - 9913 | Built muscular dystonia ii | SLC6A5 | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 000262 - 9913 | Deficiency of uridine monophosphate synthase | UMPS | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 001680 - 9913 | Dominant white with bilateral deafness | MITF | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 001485 - 9913 | Dwarfism Angus | PRKG2 | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 001271 - 9913 | Dwarfism Dexter | ACAN | iv bp INS or SNP | Frameshift |
| OMIA 001473 - 9913 | Dwarfism growth hormone deficiency | GH1 | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 001686 - 9913 | Dwarfism proportionate with inflammatory lesions | RNF11 | SNP | Splice site |
| OMIA 000327 - 9913 | Ehlers–Danlos syndrome | EPYC | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 000328 - 9913 | Ehlers–Danlos syndrome type VII (dermatosparaxis) | ADAMTS2 | 17 bp deletion | |
| OMIA 000340 - 9913 | Epidermolysis bullosa | KRT5 | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 000363 - 9913 | Gene XI deficiency | F11 | 76 bp insertion | |
| OMIA 000419 - 9913 | Glycogen storage affliction II | GAA | SNPs | Nonsense and missense |
| OMIA 001139 - 9913 | Glycogen storage illness 5 | PYGM | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 000424 - 9913 | Goitre familial | TG | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 000437 - 9913 | Haemophilia A | F8 | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 000540 - 9913 | Hypotrichosis | HEPHL1 | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 001544 - 9913 | Hypotrichosis with coat-color dilution | PMEL | iii bp deletion | |
| OMIA 000547 - 9913 | Ichthyosis congenita | ABCA12 | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 000595 - 9913 | Leukocyte adhesion deficiency type I | ITGB2 | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 000625 - 9913 | Mannosidosis alpha | MAN2B1 | SNPs | Missense |
| OMIA 000626 - 9913 | Mannosidosis beta | MANBA | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 000627 - 9913 | Maple syrup urine affliction | BCKDHA | SNPs | Nonsense |
| OMIA 000628 - 9913 | Marfan syndrome | FBN1 | SNPs | Missense and splice site |
| OMIA 001342 - 9913 | Mucopolysaccharidosis IIIB | NAGLU | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 000733 - 9913 | Multiple ocular defects | WFDC1 | 1 bp INS | Frameshift |
| OMIA 000683 - 9913 | Muscular hypertrophy (double muscling) | MSTN | Numerous SNPs, 11 bp deletion, 10 bp INS | |
| OMIA 000685 - 9913 | Myasthenic syndrome congenital | CHRNE | 20 bp deletion | |
| OMIA 000689 - 9913 | Myoclonus | GLRA1 | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 001319 - 9913 | Myopathy of the diaphragmatic muscles | HSPA1A | 11 kb deletion | |
| OMIA 001482 - 9913 | Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis five | CLN5 | 1 bp duplication | Frameshift |
| OMIA 000755 - 9913 | Osteopetrosis | SLC4A2 | 2.eight kb deletion | |
| OMIA 000836 - 9913 | Protoporphyria | FECH | SNP | Stoploss |
| OMIA 001464 - 9913 | Pseudomyotonia congenital | ATP2A1 | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 001135 - 9913 | Renal dysplasia | CLDN16 | 37 kb or 56 kb deletion | |
| OMIA 001593 - 9913 | Scurs blazon 2 | TWIST1 | 10 bp duplication | |
| OMIA 001230 - 9913 | Sex reversal: XY female person | SRY | Large Deletion | |
| OMIA 001228 - 9913 | Spherocytosis | SLC4A1 | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 001247 - 9913 | Spinal dysmyelination | SPAST | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 000939 - 9913 | Spinal muscular cloudburst | KDSR | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 000963 - 9913 | Syndactyly (mule foot) | LRP4 | SNP or 2 bp replacement | Splice site or missense |
| OMIA 001452 - 9913 | Tail crooked | MRC2 | ii bp deletion or SNP | Nonsense or missense |
| OMIA 001003 - 9913 | Thrombopathia | RASGRP2 | SNP | Missense |
| OMIA 001009 - 9913 | Tibial hemimelia | ALX4 | 45.vii kb deletion | |
| OMIA 001360 - 9913 | Trimethylaminuria | FMO3 | SNP | Nonsense |
| OMIA 001079 - 9913 | Yellowish fat | BCO2 | SNP | Nonsense |
Management of known disease alleles has traditionally relied on the culling of carriers via mark-assisted elimination from genetic comeback programs. Nonetheless, given the frequency of such alleles within the population, information technology seems likely that selection programs will exist confounded past linkage disequilibrium betwixt LOF and benign alleles. We propose that under these circumstances, the misreckoning genetic defects may exist candidates for correction past TALEN-mediated gene conversion. Indeed, of the 75 mutations for the 62 cattle disease loci described in Online Mendelian Inheritance in Animals website (http://omia.angis.org.au/home/), 87% are either SNPs or pocket-size indels of less than 20 bp (Tabular array 6), which are highly likely to be acquiescent to homology directed allelic correction. Such targetable loci will likely predominate as suggested by deep sequence surveys of numerous species.
Correction either of genetic lesions or the introgression of desirable alleles into livestock must be consistent with the objectives of ongoing genetic comeback programs. This could be achieved past either (1) editing the genomes of animals previously determined to be of significant genetic value or (two) editing the genomes of animals prior to determining their implicit genetic value (Fig. eight). In the case of cloning (Fig 8A), gene-editing would need to be implemented sufficiently rapidly to proceed pace with ongoing genetic improvement programs. The application of genomic selection is already accelerating genetic improvement past allowing the estimation of genetic merit without the requirement of performance testing. In theory, genetically superior newborn animals could immediately be identified and subjected to gene editing for the correction of an LOF allele or the introgression of desirable alleles that are not already present. This approach provides for a controlled and characterized outcome at every pace of the process. Theoretically, there are no limitations in the types and numbers of edits that can exist made. Alternatively, since embryo transfer is already part of the genetic improvement epitome for some livestock (e.g., cattle), editing could exist applied by the direct treatment of embryos (Fig 8B). The efficiency of such modifications would need to be sufficiently loftier to kickoff any losses in reproductive rate engendered past embryo handling. In the instance of simple gene inactivation, the frequency of success is already very high (75%), with even homozygous modification in 10–twenty% of embryos (Carlson, Tan, et al., in printing). More sophisticated edits accept yet to be tested in livestock embryos, merely results with ZFNs in mice, rats, and rabbits (Carbery et al., 2010; Flisikowska et al., 2011; Meyer et al., 2010) and with TALENs in zebra fish (Huang et al., 2011; Sander, Cade, et al., 2011) and rodents (Tesson et al., 2011) advise that even template repair tin reach significant frequencies in treated embryos. Furthermore, the use of repair templates in association with RecA-mediated sequence searching, alignment, and strand-invasion functions may further increase the number and frequency of factor-editing events in injected embryos. Moreover, precision genome editing can likewise be used to innovate alleles that practice not currently be within a species by homology-driven allelic substitution. Geneticists working with non-livestock species, e.g., humans, have identified candidate alleles with potential utility in farm animals. There are now the possibilities to create livestock that can be used for disease models equally well equally enhance agronomical sustainability, food safety, and security. At the current rate of improvement in efficiency, cistron editing will be limited only by our imagination.
Figure 8. Strategies for implementation of allelic introgression. The introgression of desirable alleles into livestock could follow either a vertical (panel A) or a horizontal (panel B) paradigm. (A) In the vertical paradigm, allelic introgression would be performed in cells derived from a donor private(s) with a loftier predictability of transmitting ability/estimated breeding value (PTA/EBV, denoted by a blue ribbon). I or several genetic heterozygous or homozygous allele conversions (genetic edits) could exist made and verified (e.chiliad., by sequence analysis) prior to cloning of an individual. The resulting creature would not but deport the edits but would also maintain the original PTA/EBV of the donor animal. This animal would be entered back into the genetic improvement plan and edits would be selected in subsequent generations. (B) Horizontal implementation takes advantage of the fact that embryo transfer is routine in genetic comeback programs of some livestock species, e.yard., cattle. Zygotes produced from animals with high PTA/EBV could be injected with TALENs plus repair templates corresponding to the desired alleles and implanted into a surrogate for establishment or pregnancy. Resulting offspring could be scored for high PTA/EBV and either the presence or the absence of the targeted edits. Animals with loftier PTA/EBV would exist maintained in the genetic improvement program regardless of the edit status, while animals with low PTA/EBV would be culled. Ii potential improvements of this process can be envisioned. (1) An embryo biopsy at the blastocysts stage could be collected to evaluate the edit status or PTA/EBV so that only edited and/or high PTA/EBV embryos would be implanted into surrogates. (two) Fetal cells could exist collected early in pregnancy by amniocentesis for evaluation of the edit status or PTA/EBV. Depression PTA/EBV or not-edited animals could exist culled prior to parturition. Development of these technologies could further accelerate the rate of livestock improvement. In contrast to the vertical image, allelic introgression and genetic improvement volition go on to occur in the horizontal paradigm, thereby producing animals that would be 1 generation ahead in terms of genetic improvement. This method could be easily practical to generate numerous animals from multiple lines such that dissemination of converted alleles (genetic edits) would be accomplished rapidly within a population with minimal risk of inbreeding. For color version of this figure, the reader is referred to the online version of this book.
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Beefiness Up Your Tango - Meat Research in Argentina
Alejandro Schor , ... Darío Colombatto , in Meat Scientific discipline, 2008
five Breed effect on carcass physical parameters and physical, chemic and nutritional aspects of Argentinean beef
Fumagalli et al. (2005) carried out a trial to examine the result of supplementing corn grain to steers from 3 racial types: Braford, Criollo and a cross betwixt a Bos indicus and Bos taurus, fattened on irrigated pastures for 381 days. Cracked corn grain was added during the last 100 days of the trial at two levels 0.half-dozen% and 1.2% alive weight. At that place was no consequence (P> 0.05) of the nutrition × breed interaction for carcass yield, simply breed blazon was significant (P< 0.001), with the Criollo showing the lowest yield (57.five% vs. threescore.6%). Braford animals showed higher subcutaneous fat depth and a trend towards higher intramuscular fat content.
Altuve, Pourrain, Sampedro, Pizzio, and Carduza F.J. (2004) studied the differences in intramuscular fatty content and Warner Bratzler shear force in Braford or Brahman × Hereford steers finished at pasture with xx months of age (418 kg live weight) in two consecutive experiences. There was no departure in intramuscular fat content between breeds. Shear force values (5 days of ageing) were similar, suggesting that different proportions of Bos indicus would not bear on the factors under report.
Latimori et al. (2003) and Latimori et al. (2005) used Aberdeen Angus (AA), Charolais × Angus crosses (CH × AA) or Holstein (HA) steers fed on pasture with or without supplementation (0%, 0.7% and 1% alive weight) or in feedlot, to evaluate meat quality characteristics. Shear force values were not afflicted by breed (mean = 68.lxx Due north, P> 0.05), but intramuscular fatty content was college for AA than CH × AA and HA. Cholesterol contents were higher (P< 0.05) for AA (45.3 mg/100 chiliad) compared to CH × AA and HA (hateful = 43.2 mg/100 grand). Saturated fatty acid proportion was lower in HA steers compared to AA and CH × AA (37.1% vs. 39.4% for HA and the mean of the other ii, respectively), whereas the ω6:ω3 ratio did not bear witness differences. Finally, CLA concentrations were lowest in AA (0.l%) compared to the other two breeds (mean = 0.57%). Latimori, Kloster, and Amigone (2001) examined five breed types of heavy steers (Red Angus, Charolais × Angus, Fleckvieh × Angus, Criollo × Angus, and Holstein) nether grazing weather condition with corn grain supplementation (0.7% live weight) all year round with the exception of the december–feb period. All breed types exceeded 450 kg alive weight at slaughter. Holstein steers showed the lowest yield (53.v% vs. 56.1–57.8% for the other treatments) and SFA proportion (37.seven% vs. forty.1–42.5%). They also showed the lowest rib heart expanse (58.9 cmii), with the Charolais × Angus being the highest (72.i cm2) and the rest of the treatments showing intermediate values (63.4–65.7 cmtwo). With respect to shear force, Red Angus and Holstein were the most tender (xxx.18 North), whereas Fleckvieh × Angus resulted the toughest (38.22 N). Brood types evaluated did not differ in the balance of the quality parameters, which suggests that grazing conditions with moderate supplementation tin can generate high quality meat.
In another series of studies, Villarreal, Santini, Faverín, Depetris, Paván, et al. (2005) and Villarreal, Santini, Paván, et al. (2005) evaluated the effect of diets varying in energy densities (two.iv vs. 2.7 Mcal ME/kg DM) fed to Angus steers from contrasting frames (modest = one–two, and large = 4–5) from weaning (7 months of historic period) to slaughter (6 mm of subcutaneous fat depth, determined by ultrasound). Animals from large frame showed higher cooking losses (21.6% vs. xv.vii%; P< 0.05), which were associated with their larger muscle content. Santini et al. (2005) analyzed the chemical characteristics of the meat from the animals used past Villarreal, Santini, Faverín, Depetris, Paván, et al. (2005) and Villarreal, Faverín, et al. (2005) found that those animals of small frame, fed on high energy nutrition showed the everyman levels of MUFA (45.9%), highest PUFA (ix.0%), ω3 (0.84%), ω6 (8.ane%) and the highest PUFA:SFA ratio (0.2) with respect to the rest of the treatments. Small frame combined with loftier energy diets produced the largest alterations in fatty acids profile.
In another work from the same group, Villarreal et al. (2003) evaluated the same frames as above unsupplemented or supplemented with whole crop corn silage or high moisture corn grain but finished on pasture. They plant that animals of big frame showed the lowest pH values (5.62 vs. 5.51, P< 0.01), the virtually tender meat (74.09 vs. 99.96 N, P < 0.01), largest CLA and PUFA concentration (1.fifteen% vs. 0.fourscore% and 8.92% vs. 5.72% for CLA and PUFA for big and pocket-size frame animals, respectively), and a lower SFA content (46.0% vs. 53.2%, P < 0.01) and ω6:ω3 ratio (3.23 vs. 4.23, P < 0.09).
Pruzzo, Schindler, Abbiati, and Santa Coloma (2000) adamant the relative importance of brood blazon (British, Continental, Bos indicus and Friesians crosses) on shear strength of the Longissimus dorsi of steers and cows. Mean shear force values of Bos indicus (38.12 N) differed significantly from all others (32.14 N).
Latimori et al. (2000) evaluated the productive functioning and meat quality of medium framed (4–half-dozen) steers from iv genetic groups (Santa Gertrudis, SG; 3/four Brangus × Aberdeen Angus cross, B × AA; Limousin × Aberdeen Angus cross, 50 × AA; and Fleckvieh × Hereford cross, F × H), grazing alfalfa and tall fescue pastures with strategic corn grain supplementation. Fattening phase (i.e., weaning to slaughter) lasted 12 months, and animals were slaughtered with an average of 466 kg live weight. No differences (P> 0.05) in Warner Bratzler shear force (mean = 27.66 N), colour parameters (mean of L ∗ = 26.4, saturation index = 17.43, Hunter Lab scale), intramuscular fat (mean = 2.87%) and cholesterol content (hateful = 38.77 mg/100 g) were found in Longissimus dorsi. Cholesterol levels were low, which was attributed to the low relative values of intramuscular fat or other unexplained factors. Saturated fatty acids contents showed differences (46.seven% vs. 43.4% for SG and F × H, respectively, P< 0.05), and then did MUFA contents (36.ix% vs. 41.4% for B × AA and F × H, respectively), only no differences were detected for PUFA (mean = 7.65%).
Bonsmara is a 5/viii:3/8 combination of the Afrikaner (Bos taurus africanus) and Shorthorn/Hereford (Bos taurus taurus) introduced in Argentina earlier the year 2000. García and Lundqvist (2000) studied the limerick of intramuscular (Longissimus dorsi) and subcutaneous lipids from Bonsmara (25 months old, 450 kg live weight) steers fattened nether a traditional grazing organisation. The average intramuscular fat content (1.9%) was similar or lower than British cattle fattened under similar weather (García & Castro Almeyra, 1992). Cholesterol content was also low but typical of very lean beef (39 mg/100 m). Also, the fat acid composition of Bonsmara (SFA = 43.0%; MUFA = 44.two%; PUFA = viii.4%) was similar to the fatty acid composition of Angus steers with low levels of intramuscular fatty contents.
González et al. (2003) examined the shear forcefulness of pure Aberdeen Angus (A) and Hereford (H) steers, and their crosses with Bos indicus (B), (BA 1/four, BH one/4, BA three/8 and BH three/viii) fattened at pasture and slaughtered when they reached iv–8 mm subcutaneous fat depth. No differences were detected in WB shear force values from the pure breeds (A and H, mean = 82.32 N), the ane/4 crosses (mean = 79.38 N) and the 3/8 crosses (84.28 Due north).
As a general determination, breed type had a minor upshot in terms of concrete and nutritional parameters of meat. Dissimilar proportion of Bos indicus did not event in differences in intramuscular fat contents or shear force values, but when Bos indicus steers were compared to very different breed types (Pure British and Continental), their shear force values were higher. However this will depend on the proportion of Bos indicus in the cross. When pure British breeds were compared to British × Continental crosses, the onetime showed higher intramuscular fat contents, lower CLA content and higher saturated fatty acid concentrations, without differences in the ω6:ω3 ratio and shear force values. When steers from contrasting frames were compared, only marginal, probable, non-biologically significant differences were observed.
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58th International Congress of Meat Science and Technology (58th ICoMST)
C. Mapiye , ... Yard.E.R. Dugan , in Meat Scientific discipline, 2012
6.4 Genetics, metabolism and ruminal influences
Genetic improvement programs piece of work well when traits being selected for have a great deal of variability amongst animals and are highly heritable. To appointment, differences in FA composition related to genetics reported are minor relative to the recommended daily intake for appreciable health benefits in humans. For example, based on consumption of a 100 g portion of meat, breed differences betwixt Simmental and Cherry Angus ( Laborde, Mandell, Tosh, Wilton, & Buchanan-Smith, 2001) only provided 3.0% of the recommended daily intake of north-iii PUFA, and ane.iii% of the RA intake (iii g) considered necessary for cancer prevention in humans based on extrapolated fauna data (Decker, 1995; Ip, Singh, Thompson, & Scimeca, 1994). Overall, it has been difficult to evaluate the actual contribution of genetics to variation in the FA limerick of meat due to confounding effects of live-weight, historic period, gender, carcass fatness and tissue type amid other factors that affect lipid metabolism (De Smet, Raes, & Demeyer, 2004). Differences in FA limerick among breeds have, yet, been found when comparing breeds at the same carcass fatness, live-weight, age and gender or by using these variables as covariates in the statistical analysis of data (Woods & Fearon, 2009). The gene for Δ-ix desaturase is mayhap the most studied, every bit it relates to marbling fat deposition (Smith, Gill, Lunt, & Brooks, 2009), but even for this diet and age effects announced to outweigh effects of genetics. Development of mark assisted selection may, notwithstanding, be on the horizon for improvements in total intramuscular fat content (Hocquette et al., 2010) and with this at that place may as well be some potential for investigating improvements in fatty acrid limerick.
Differences amongst species provide a much greater source of variation in meat FA composition. Beef typically has a more than desirable due north-vi/north-3 ratio, simply a lower PUFA:SFA ratio compared to pork (Raes et al., 2004). A striking difference is likewise the presence of increased amounts of PUFA biohydrogenation intermediates in beef. Interestingly, PUFA biohydrogenation intermediates also take the greatest coefficients of variation. In dairy cattle the rank club of biohydrogenation intermediates in milk remains consistent when diets are inverse (Peterson, Kelsey, & Bauman, 2002), and production of enriched dairy products can exist done by selecting milk from animals which yield high levels of biohydrogenation intermediates. A selection process such as this may also be possible for enriching biohydrogenation intermediates in beef by using red claret prison cell FA analysis (Aldai, Dugan, Rolland, & Aalhus, 2012). In back up of this potential, levels of VA in kidney fat at slaughter when feeding steers a nutrition with 15% flaxseed have been found to be straight related to rolling pre-slaughter monthly averages in reddish blood cells over the feeding period (Fig. 5; author unpublished results). Consequently, red blood cell measurements could be used equally a screening tool early on in the feeding period, avoiding the demand to feed loftier levels of oils, or oilseeds to animals that volition not become enriched with biohydrogenation products. To our knowledge, even so, heritability of PUFA biohydrogenation production accumulation in beef when feeding PUFA enriched diets has not been evaluated.
Fig. 5. txi-18:1 concentration in kidney fat of private steers fed a lxx red clover:30 concentrate containing 15% ground flaxseed for 8 months, and rolling averages of the pct of t11-xviii:one in total fatty acid methyl esters in red claret cells during the finishing period.
Differences in FA composition tin originate from inter-animal variation in nutrition component selection, bite size, eating rate, quality and quantity of saliva produced, kinds and numbers of microbes, rumen surroundings, digesta retention and passage rates, digestive efficiency and lipid metabolism (Hegarty, 2004). In this regard, future strategies for improving the FA composition of beef, and limiting its variation amongst animals, must address how diet, animate being management, physiology, and behavior influence the rumen environment and microbial populations in individual animals, and to what extent private brute variation in lipid metabolism may also play a part. To this end, information technology will be important to sympathise the rumen environment, including potential regulators of PUFA metabolism pathways, and to characterize rumen environmental using high throughput molecular biology techniques (Duan, Guo, & Liu, 2006; Qi et al., 2011), and to extend studies looking at fundamental biochemical aspects of lipid metabolism on a species and tissue specific basis (Gruffat, Gobert, Durand, & Bauchart, 2011). Currently available cost-effective molecular techniques utilized by either animal geneticists or rumen microbiologists, if focused on the understanding of inter-animal variation of FA composition, could assistance in advancing in the product of FA enriched beef. Animate being breeders, physiologists, biochemists, ethologists, and fauna/microbial molecular geneticists tin can, therefore, play important roles in MLNs trying to produce FA enriched beef.
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